Cursus Honorum: The Roman Hierarchy

The cursus honorum officially begins with ten years of military duty in the Roman army as a Cadet or in the staff of a general. Nepotism is now condemned. A more prestigious position was that of a military tribune. As many men, at the age of around 28,as needed by the Legions are elected by the Centurion Council to serve as a Tribunes in one of the legions. These years normaly are mandatory to qualify for political office, but, in practice, the rule is not rigidly applied.

The following steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year.

Quaestor

The first official post is that of quaestor. Candidates have to be at least 28-30 years old.
Twenty quaestors serve in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They can also serve as the pay master for a legion. An additional task of all quaestors is the supervision of public games. Also, after the reforms of Sulla in the early 80s BC, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the Senate, which previously was decided by the censors. As a quaestor, an official is allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but is not escorted by lictors, nor does he possess imperium.

AedilesThe first official post is that of quaestor. Candidates have to be at least 28-30 years old.
Twenty quaestors serve in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They can also serve as the pay master for a legion. An additional task of all quaestors is the supervision of public games. Also, after the reforms of Sulla in the early 80s BC, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the Senate, which previously was decided by the censors. As a quaestor, an official is allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but is not escorted by lictors, nor does he possess imperium.

Aediles

At 36 years of age, former quaestors can stand for election to one of the aedile positions. The aediles have administrative responsibilities in Rome. They have to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin aedes, "temple") they organize games and are responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they ar in charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they serve sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.
The Aedile is the supervisor of public works. He oversees the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who have similar or related duties. Also they oversee the organization of festivals and games (ludi).
While part of the cursus honorum, this step is optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office is usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.

Praetor

After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years can run for Praetor. The number of Praetors elected vary. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor will be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor can exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function is that of a judge. They preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate is escorted by six lictors, owns imperium, and wears the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate will serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessing ultimate authority within their province(s).
The Praetor Peregrinus, who is the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other is the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He has the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and serves as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus is not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors is absent from Rome, the other will perform the duties of both.


Consul

The minimum age is 42. The names of the two elected consuls identifies the year. Consuls are responsible for the Republicas political agenda, command large-scale armies and control important provinces. The consuls served for only two years (to prevent corruption) and can only rule when they agree, because each consul can veto the other's decision.
The consuls alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also are the supreme commander in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercise the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limit their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs can supersede their decisions.
A consul is escorted by twelve lictors, owns imperium and wares the toga praetexta. Because the consul is the highest executive office within the Republic, they have the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul is assigned one of the more important provinces and acts as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor does, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship can only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man from holding too much power.

Governor

Though not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer is required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls hold near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor holds equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they are escorted by the same number of lictors and can only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern are only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs are unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remains at least a mile outside of Rome.

CensorAt 36 years of age, former quaestors can stand for election to one of the aedile positions. The aediles have administrative responsibilities in Rome. They have to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin aedes, "temple") they organize games and are responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they ar in charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they serve sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.
The Aedile is the supervisor of public works. He oversees the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who have similar or related duties. Also they oversee the organization of festivals and games (ludi).
While part of the cursus honorum, this step is optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office is usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.

Praetor

After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years can run for Praetor. The number of Praetors elected vary. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor will be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor can exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function is that of a judge. They preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate is escorted by six lictors, owns imperium, and wears the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate will serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessing ultimate authority within their province(s).
The Praetor Peregrinus, who is the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other is the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He has the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and serves as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus is not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors is absent from Rome, the other will perform the duties of both.


Consul

The minimum age is 42. The names of the two elected consuls identifies the year. Consuls are responsible for the Republicas political agenda, command large-scale armies and control important provinces. The consuls served for only two years (to prevent corruption) and can only rule when they agree, because each consul can veto the other's decision.
The consuls alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also are the supreme commander in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercise the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limit their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs can supersede their decisions.
A consul is escorted by twelve lictors, owns imperium and wares the toga praetexta. Because the consul is the highest executive office within the Republic, they have the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul is assigned one of the more important provinces and acts as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor does, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship can only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man from holding too much power.

Governor

Though not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer is required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls hold near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor holds equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they are escorted by the same number of lictors and can only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern are only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs are unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remains at least a mile outside of Rome.

Censor

Main article: Censor (ancient Rome)
After consul, the next step in the Cursus Honorum is the office of censor. This is the only office in the Roman Republic whose term is a period of 30 months instead of the usual 24. Censors are elected every five years and although the office holds no military imperium, it is considered a great honor. The censors take a regular census of the people and then apportion the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enroll new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors are also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who have been elected to the requisite offices. Censors can also remove unworthy members from the senate. Censors are also responsible for construction of public buildings
Censors also have financial duties, in that they have to put out to tender projects that are to be financed by the state. Also, the censors are in charge of the leasing out ofpublic land for public use and auction. Though this office owns no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they are allowed to wear the toga praetexta.

Tribune of the Plebs

Those who hold the office are granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power to rescue any citizen from the hands of a magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribunes can even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses have to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they are not allowed to be more than a days' journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune has no need for lictors for protection and owns no imperium, nor can they wear the toga praetexta.

Princeps Senatus

Another office not officially a step in the cursus honorum is the princeps senatus.. The princeps senatus serves as the leader of the Senate and is chosen to serve a five year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors can, however, confirm a princeps senatus for a period of another five years. The princeps senatus is chosen from all senators who have served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, does not own imperium, is not escorted by lictors, and can not wear the toga praetexta.

Gaius Julius Octavius Augustus

After the civil wars which brought Augustus to power, on the winning side alone, 60 legions stood combat-ready.Augustus decided to retain 28, while the remainder would be demobilized and settled in the colonies.By this act, the west's first standing army of 150'000 legionaries and a similar number of auxiliaries was created. Length of service was set at sixteen years, later it was increased to twenty.Though his army of 28 legions Augustus made sure to quickly spread across the far reaches of the empire, with all the legions being posted both far away from Rome as well as as far away as possible from each other.It expressed Augustus' distrust of soldiers and of ambitious men who might rouse them against him.By keeping the armies close to the borders their energies would be directed outward, toward foreign enemies; and keeping them far from each other would ensure that no overwhelming force could be assembled which might threaten the throne.While this caution, right after the civil war, was understandable, Augustus' arrangements would long outlive him.Augustus disposition of the legions was matched by his manipulation of the provinces. Of these he retained the most powerful under his direct power on the grounds that they were insecure, either with enemies on their borders or were themselves capable of rebellion. But his real purpose was that he alone should have arms and maintain soldiers. In short, Augustus kept the outer, returning the inner provinces to the Senate. It was a muted way of assuring himself commander-in-chief, for the army would be stationed only in the outer provinces which would be governed and administered by the emperor's appointees. This meant that the frontier would be under direct imperial authority, establishing for the emperor a hold over foreign affairs and decisions of peace and war.The division of territory into 'Senate's share' and 'Caesar's share' was accompanied by a ban on senators even visiting a frontier province without imperial permission.It was clear from this that Augustus saw the Senate as one of the likeliest sources from which to expect a challenge to his position.To this one must add, that to Augustus (as well as to later Caesars) the Senate, with its centuries of experience, remained indispensable in running the empire.
The East of the empire gave no trouble. The small dependent kingdoms still surviving in Asia Minor (Turkey) were peacefully and gradually absorbed into the Roman provincial system. Parthia under king Phraates had no desire to challenge Rome. The unavenged disaster of Carrhae in 53 BC however had always rankled in the Roman mind. So when in 20 BC a demand was made by Rome, emphasized by a military demonstration of force along the border, for the return of the captives and most importantly for the legionary standards, which had been in Parthian possession since the disastrous defeat of Crassus over thirty years earlier. King Phraates wisely gave way, avoiding war against a newly united foe, increasing in strength. The standards were returned to Rome without a fight. An achievement which won Augustus high praise.

By 19 BC Agrippa had assured the submission of the Spanish tribes. But a German incursion across the Rhine in 16 BC defeated a Roman commander, Lollius, and called for the temporary presence of Augustus at the front, where he left the command in the hands of his stepson Drusus.

In 12 BC Agrippa died and with him Augustus lost his most obvious heir. For a while Augustus hoped for Gaius or Lucius, both sons of Agrippa to succeed him, but as they both died his choice somewhat reluctantly fell on Tiberius, the son by his wife out of a previous marriage.Then followed a conquest of Germany, initially to the Elbe. At first it was led by Drusus, who died on campaign. He was succeeded by Tiberius who had established Roman supremacy over Pannonia and Noricum.Sixteen years' struggle in mire and forest, amphibious landings and spectacular marches were rewarded with a succession of victories. A bold project, sometimes referred to as the 'Bohemian Plan', was mooted as a culminating blow. Tiberius would cross the Danube heading north, snip off what is now the western end of the Czech Republic, descend into the German plain and join hands with an army group advancing eastwards from the Rhine. The so-called 'Bohemian Plan' may have only been meant as one step in a much larger offensive.Rome, of course, virtually unbeaten so far and inexorably rising to conquer the word, by now virtually understood the rule of the world its birthright.But none of these grand schemes would be implemented. Shortly before commencement of operations, a revolt erupted in Tiberius' rear and spread rapidly across the Balkans. To quell it required almost half of Rome's fighting strength, to become tied up for three years in a mountain war.Meanwhile it was deemed that Northern Germany, west of the Elbe was sufficiently pacified. P. Quintillius Varus was entrusted as governor of the province. Though Germany was not ready for Roman civilization. In AD 9 disaster struck an empire which until then had virtually met no opponent capable of halting its rise to supreme power.Under the command of Varus three legions and three cavalry squadrons marched through the Teutoburger Wald (Saltus Teutoburgiensis) The German tribe, the Cherusci, under their leader known to the Romans as Arminius, had learnt their lesson.In open terrain, with room to manoeuvre, the Roman army was literally unbeatable. But in the middle of a forest, it was vulnerable. The trap was sprung and three entire legions were annihilated. Arminius' victory was a major turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. If Romans had previously marched as far as the Elbe, and even if they could do so in future, then this proved that they would never ever really rule any territory north of the Rhine and the Danube. - Rome had alas met its match in the barbarians of northern Europe.Though it was a costly lesson for Rome. Three legions had been annihilated. Varus and his staff committed suicide. It was to be remembered by the Romans as the 'Varian disaster'.Tiberius thereafter still could march his legions through Germany almost unhindered, in fact he did so. But not to subdue it and conquer it. For this, one now understood, was beyond Roman power.Tiberius was recalled from his task of restoring Roman authority in Germany. Instead command was left in the hands of Germanicus, who was to be highly popular with the legions, in contrast to the almost despised Tiberius.Had Germanicus had any serious political ambitions he would certainly have become a formidable opponent to any future emperor. Yet, Germanicus was loyal and a devoted soldier.
Alas, Augustus went out with advice to his successors that the empire should be kept within its existing boundaries. This was an astonishing turn of events. The imperialist had recanted. Rome could not expand indefinitely. He had in office learned of the problems facing an empire of this scale and appreciated the difficulties in holding it together.Any further expansion in the eyes of the elderly Augustus would take the empire beyond being practically governable.Also, the Mediterranean part of Europe, Africa and Asia, which Rome now ruled had been developed prior to Roman occupation. There was roads, town, cities. What prize was there to win, defeating the barbarian hordes of the north. Augustus ultimate conclusion from the Varian Disaster was that only civilized territories were worth the blood of Roman legionaries.His advice would have demanded a change in attitude by all Rome - to defend, not to conquer. Rome however, the she-wolf with her mighty legions, was not yet ready for such advice.

Marcus Licinius Crassus

Crassus grew up as the son of a consul and distinguished general.His career to fame and phenomenal wealth began as he started purchasing the houses of Sulla's victims. Had Sulla confiscated all their belongings he sold them off cheap. And Crassus bought and made sensational profits when selling them on.Using his wealth he also kept a troop of 500 slaves, all skilled builders, on stand-by. He would then simply wait for one of Rome's frequent fires to break out and would then offer to buy the burning properties, as well as the endangered neighbouring buildings. Using his team of builders he would then rebuild the area and keep it to draw income from rent, or sell it on with a large profit. At one point Crassus was said even to own most of the city of Rome. There was no doubt some who wondered, if some of the fires started in Rome might not actually have been his doing.
But Crassus was not a man to be content with being extremely rich. Power was just as desirable to him as money. He used his wealth to raise his own army and supported Sulla on his return from the east.His money bought him the favour among many political friends and he therefore enjoyed great influence in the senate.But Crassus would not merely sponsor and entertain well established politicians. So, too, would he be granting funds to promising young firebrands who might just get lucky. And so his money helped build the careers of both Julius Caesar as well as Cataline.
Crassus; problem however was that some of his contemporaries possessed true genius. Cicero was an outstanding public speaker whilst Pompey and Caesar bathed in the glory of the marvellous military achievements. Crassus was a decent both as a speaker and as a commander, but he struggled and failed to live up to comparison with these exceptional individuals. His talent lay in making money, which might have bought him political influence but couldn't buy him true popularity with the voters.
His money though did open many doors. For his wealth allowed him to raise and maintain an army, at a time when Rome felt its resources stretched. This army was raised, with him as commander in the rank of praetor, to take on the terrifying menace of the the slave revolt of Spartacus in 72 BC. Two specific acts regarding this war made him truly infamous. When his deputy met the enemy and suffered a disastrous defeat, he chose to revive the ancient and gruesome punishment of 'decimation'. Of the five hundred men, whose unit were deemed most guilty for bringing about defeat, he had every tenth man killed in front of the entire army.Then, after defeating Spartacus in battle, the 6000 survivor's of the slave army were crucified along the road from Rome to Capua, where the revolt had first arise.
Despite his evident jealousy towards Pompey he held the consulship with him in 70 BC, the two of them using their term in office to restore the rights of the Tribunes of the People. In 59 BC the two were then joined by Julius Caesar in waht was to become known as the First Triumvirate, a period which saw the three of them cover all bases of Roman power so effectively that they ruled virtually unopposed. In 55 BC he once more shared the consulship with Pompey. Thereafter he managed to gain for himself the governorship of the province of Syria.Syria held two promises for its governor-to-be. The prospect of further riches (it was one of the wealthiest provinces of the entire empire) and the possibility of military glory against the Parthians. Had Crassus always jealously looked upon the military achievements of Pompey and Caesar. Now, alas, he sought to equal them. He charged headlong into a war, embarking on a campaign, whilst ignoring advice offered him on how to proceed.Finally he found himself stranded with little to no cavalry on the plains of Carrhae in Mesopotamia where the Parthian mounted archers shot his armies to pieces (53 BC).
Crassus was killed and it is said that his head as severed and molten gold was poured into his mouth as a mark of his infamous greed.

One reason for the Fall of Rome

It fell because its political make-up left it unable to defend itself against invasion. The Roman Empire was under authoritarian rule, disunited and with many opposed to that rule. Emperors feared arming people. Many lacked the sense that "Roman" rule was worth protecting. The empire's military security was not communities of men ready for mobilization at command from central authority. Instead, people from outside the empire were able to march into the empire with only feeble opposition. Around the year 395, Huns pushed on Germanic peoples, and these Germans crossed the Danube River in great numbers and into the Roman province of Pannonia, and the Roman population there fled westward. The empire was further challenged in 399 when Alaric and his army of Visigoth warriors and civilians moved across the Alps and into Italy. Then, in the winter of 406-7, a coalition of Germanic warrior tribes with their farm animals and children crossed the frozen Rhine River into Gaul. The invaders found only feeble opposition as they spread out, some of them going as far as the Pyrenees Mountains, while only a few towns, among them Toulouse, attempted a significant resistance.

Granted, communications were slower for central Roman authority than communications are today, but the question is why Rome fell given the technological circumstances of those times. Some dislike singular explanations and prefer a host of equivalent contributions to the empire's breakup. There are subsidiary factors, namely all that went into the political decay within Rome and its empire. There was the economic decay that accompanied the political decay. Some add Christianity to the mix, or paganism. These aside, the political system was geared for occasional failures in competent leadership. And one might want to throw in an increase in population among those living outside the Roman Empire - while no serious student of ancient Rome is arguing the kind of morality factor that one might expect from a Cecil B. de Mille Hollywood production. Refraining from mixing the subsidiary with the primary, I claim again that Rome fell because its political make-up left it unable to defend itself against invasion

Cicero

Cicero was born in 106 B.C., six years before the birth of Julius Caesar, into a wealthy family, though none of his family served as senators. He received the Roman equivalent of an Ivy League education, studying rhetoric and philosophy in Rome, Athens, and Rhodes. After making a name as a lawyer in the Roman lawcourts, he was elected to the office of quaestor in 76, which made him a member of the Senate, and in 63 he was elected consul, at the lowest legal age and as the first man for thirty years to gain that position from a family which had not previously held the office. During his year as consul he put down the conspiracy of Catiline, for which he was awarded the title of "Father of his Country." Cicero, however, as a champion of the traditional institutions of the Roman republic and the enemy of autocracy, was no match for the power politics of Julius Caesar and Pompey, and was never afterwards a major influence in public affairs when they erupted onto the scene. Cicero rejoiced at the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. and returned to political life with vigorous public attacks on Mark Antony, but his association with the young Octavian (later the Emperor Augustus) did not save him from Antony's revenge and he was killed in the wave of assassinations which began the triumvirate regime of Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus (43 B.C.).

During the later years of his life, when he could no longer take much part in politics, Cicero devoted his time to writing a number of philosophical works. He intended to make the moral ideas of the Greek philosophers available to Roman public figures who were faced constantly with important decisions but not terribly studious in temperament; these philosophical works were immensely significant in the intellectual life of Europe until very recent times and were an essential part of the education of 18th century Americans. such as just about all the writers of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. Perhaps the most important philosophical idea for Cicero was the notion of duties. The word is a slightly misleading translation; the Latin word (officia) in its narrow sense means "reciprocal personal relationships," but for Cicero means something like "what we owe to others based on our specific relationship to them." Cicero's most lasting work in the European tradition is "The Dream of Scipio," a short interlude in a longer (now lost) work on the duties various members of a republic owe to one another, De Re Publica (On Public Affairs: this is the word from which "republic" derives), which is Cicero's Stoic version of Plato's Republic. In it, Scipio Africanus, the hero of the Second Punic War, appears to his descendent, also called Scipio, and shows him the harmonies of the universe and the place just actions and just humans occupy in this universe.