Cursus Honorum: The Roman Hierarchy

The cursus honorum officially begins with ten years of military duty in the Roman army as a Cadet or in the staff of a general. Nepotism is now condemned. A more prestigious position was that of a military tribune. As many men, at the age of around 28,as needed by the Legions are elected by the Centurion Council to serve as a Tribunes in one of the legions. These years normaly are mandatory to qualify for political office, but, in practice, the rule is not rigidly applied.

The following steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year.

Quaestor

The first official post is that of quaestor. Candidates have to be at least 28-30 years old.
Twenty quaestors serve in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They can also serve as the pay master for a legion. An additional task of all quaestors is the supervision of public games. Also, after the reforms of Sulla in the early 80s BC, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the Senate, which previously was decided by the censors. As a quaestor, an official is allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but is not escorted by lictors, nor does he possess imperium.

AedilesThe first official post is that of quaestor. Candidates have to be at least 28-30 years old.
Twenty quaestors serve in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They can also serve as the pay master for a legion. An additional task of all quaestors is the supervision of public games. Also, after the reforms of Sulla in the early 80s BC, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the Senate, which previously was decided by the censors. As a quaestor, an official is allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but is not escorted by lictors, nor does he possess imperium.

Aediles

At 36 years of age, former quaestors can stand for election to one of the aedile positions. The aediles have administrative responsibilities in Rome. They have to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin aedes, "temple") they organize games and are responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they ar in charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they serve sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.
The Aedile is the supervisor of public works. He oversees the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who have similar or related duties. Also they oversee the organization of festivals and games (ludi).
While part of the cursus honorum, this step is optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office is usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.

Praetor

After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years can run for Praetor. The number of Praetors elected vary. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor will be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor can exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function is that of a judge. They preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate is escorted by six lictors, owns imperium, and wears the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate will serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessing ultimate authority within their province(s).
The Praetor Peregrinus, who is the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other is the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He has the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and serves as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus is not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors is absent from Rome, the other will perform the duties of both.


Consul

The minimum age is 42. The names of the two elected consuls identifies the year. Consuls are responsible for the Republicas political agenda, command large-scale armies and control important provinces. The consuls served for only two years (to prevent corruption) and can only rule when they agree, because each consul can veto the other's decision.
The consuls alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also are the supreme commander in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercise the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limit their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs can supersede their decisions.
A consul is escorted by twelve lictors, owns imperium and wares the toga praetexta. Because the consul is the highest executive office within the Republic, they have the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul is assigned one of the more important provinces and acts as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor does, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship can only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man from holding too much power.

Governor

Though not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer is required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls hold near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor holds equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they are escorted by the same number of lictors and can only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern are only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs are unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remains at least a mile outside of Rome.

CensorAt 36 years of age, former quaestors can stand for election to one of the aedile positions. The aediles have administrative responsibilities in Rome. They have to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin aedes, "temple") they organize games and are responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they ar in charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they serve sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.
The Aedile is the supervisor of public works. He oversees the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who have similar or related duties. Also they oversee the organization of festivals and games (ludi).
While part of the cursus honorum, this step is optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office is usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.

Praetor

After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years can run for Praetor. The number of Praetors elected vary. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor will be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor can exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function is that of a judge. They preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate is escorted by six lictors, owns imperium, and wears the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate will serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessing ultimate authority within their province(s).
The Praetor Peregrinus, who is the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other is the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He has the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and serves as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus is not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors is absent from Rome, the other will perform the duties of both.


Consul

The minimum age is 42. The names of the two elected consuls identifies the year. Consuls are responsible for the Republicas political agenda, command large-scale armies and control important provinces. The consuls served for only two years (to prevent corruption) and can only rule when they agree, because each consul can veto the other's decision.
The consuls alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also are the supreme commander in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercise the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limit their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs can supersede their decisions.
A consul is escorted by twelve lictors, owns imperium and wares the toga praetexta. Because the consul is the highest executive office within the Republic, they have the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul is assigned one of the more important provinces and acts as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor does, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship can only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man from holding too much power.

Governor

Though not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer is required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls hold near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor holds equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they are escorted by the same number of lictors and can only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern are only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs are unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remains at least a mile outside of Rome.

Censor

Main article: Censor (ancient Rome)
After consul, the next step in the Cursus Honorum is the office of censor. This is the only office in the Roman Republic whose term is a period of 30 months instead of the usual 24. Censors are elected every five years and although the office holds no military imperium, it is considered a great honor. The censors take a regular census of the people and then apportion the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enroll new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors are also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who have been elected to the requisite offices. Censors can also remove unworthy members from the senate. Censors are also responsible for construction of public buildings
Censors also have financial duties, in that they have to put out to tender projects that are to be financed by the state. Also, the censors are in charge of the leasing out ofpublic land for public use and auction. Though this office owns no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they are allowed to wear the toga praetexta.

Tribune of the Plebs

Those who hold the office are granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power to rescue any citizen from the hands of a magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribunes can even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses have to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they are not allowed to be more than a days' journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune has no need for lictors for protection and owns no imperium, nor can they wear the toga praetexta.

Princeps Senatus

Another office not officially a step in the cursus honorum is the princeps senatus.. The princeps senatus serves as the leader of the Senate and is chosen to serve a five year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors can, however, confirm a princeps senatus for a period of another five years. The princeps senatus is chosen from all senators who have served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, does not own imperium, is not escorted by lictors, and can not wear the toga praetexta.

Gaius Julius Octavius Augustus

After the civil wars which brought Augustus to power, on the winning side alone, 60 legions stood combat-ready.Augustus decided to retain 28, while the remainder would be demobilized and settled in the colonies.By this act, the west's first standing army of 150'000 legionaries and a similar number of auxiliaries was created. Length of service was set at sixteen years, later it was increased to twenty.Though his army of 28 legions Augustus made sure to quickly spread across the far reaches of the empire, with all the legions being posted both far away from Rome as well as as far away as possible from each other.It expressed Augustus' distrust of soldiers and of ambitious men who might rouse them against him.By keeping the armies close to the borders their energies would be directed outward, toward foreign enemies; and keeping them far from each other would ensure that no overwhelming force could be assembled which might threaten the throne.While this caution, right after the civil war, was understandable, Augustus' arrangements would long outlive him.Augustus disposition of the legions was matched by his manipulation of the provinces. Of these he retained the most powerful under his direct power on the grounds that they were insecure, either with enemies on their borders or were themselves capable of rebellion. But his real purpose was that he alone should have arms and maintain soldiers. In short, Augustus kept the outer, returning the inner provinces to the Senate. It was a muted way of assuring himself commander-in-chief, for the army would be stationed only in the outer provinces which would be governed and administered by the emperor's appointees. This meant that the frontier would be under direct imperial authority, establishing for the emperor a hold over foreign affairs and decisions of peace and war.The division of territory into 'Senate's share' and 'Caesar's share' was accompanied by a ban on senators even visiting a frontier province without imperial permission.It was clear from this that Augustus saw the Senate as one of the likeliest sources from which to expect a challenge to his position.To this one must add, that to Augustus (as well as to later Caesars) the Senate, with its centuries of experience, remained indispensable in running the empire.
The East of the empire gave no trouble. The small dependent kingdoms still surviving in Asia Minor (Turkey) were peacefully and gradually absorbed into the Roman provincial system. Parthia under king Phraates had no desire to challenge Rome. The unavenged disaster of Carrhae in 53 BC however had always rankled in the Roman mind. So when in 20 BC a demand was made by Rome, emphasized by a military demonstration of force along the border, for the return of the captives and most importantly for the legionary standards, which had been in Parthian possession since the disastrous defeat of Crassus over thirty years earlier. King Phraates wisely gave way, avoiding war against a newly united foe, increasing in strength. The standards were returned to Rome without a fight. An achievement which won Augustus high praise.

By 19 BC Agrippa had assured the submission of the Spanish tribes. But a German incursion across the Rhine in 16 BC defeated a Roman commander, Lollius, and called for the temporary presence of Augustus at the front, where he left the command in the hands of his stepson Drusus.

In 12 BC Agrippa died and with him Augustus lost his most obvious heir. For a while Augustus hoped for Gaius or Lucius, both sons of Agrippa to succeed him, but as they both died his choice somewhat reluctantly fell on Tiberius, the son by his wife out of a previous marriage.Then followed a conquest of Germany, initially to the Elbe. At first it was led by Drusus, who died on campaign. He was succeeded by Tiberius who had established Roman supremacy over Pannonia and Noricum.Sixteen years' struggle in mire and forest, amphibious landings and spectacular marches were rewarded with a succession of victories. A bold project, sometimes referred to as the 'Bohemian Plan', was mooted as a culminating blow. Tiberius would cross the Danube heading north, snip off what is now the western end of the Czech Republic, descend into the German plain and join hands with an army group advancing eastwards from the Rhine. The so-called 'Bohemian Plan' may have only been meant as one step in a much larger offensive.Rome, of course, virtually unbeaten so far and inexorably rising to conquer the word, by now virtually understood the rule of the world its birthright.But none of these grand schemes would be implemented. Shortly before commencement of operations, a revolt erupted in Tiberius' rear and spread rapidly across the Balkans. To quell it required almost half of Rome's fighting strength, to become tied up for three years in a mountain war.Meanwhile it was deemed that Northern Germany, west of the Elbe was sufficiently pacified. P. Quintillius Varus was entrusted as governor of the province. Though Germany was not ready for Roman civilization. In AD 9 disaster struck an empire which until then had virtually met no opponent capable of halting its rise to supreme power.Under the command of Varus three legions and three cavalry squadrons marched through the Teutoburger Wald (Saltus Teutoburgiensis) The German tribe, the Cherusci, under their leader known to the Romans as Arminius, had learnt their lesson.In open terrain, with room to manoeuvre, the Roman army was literally unbeatable. But in the middle of a forest, it was vulnerable. The trap was sprung and three entire legions were annihilated. Arminius' victory was a major turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. If Romans had previously marched as far as the Elbe, and even if they could do so in future, then this proved that they would never ever really rule any territory north of the Rhine and the Danube. - Rome had alas met its match in the barbarians of northern Europe.Though it was a costly lesson for Rome. Three legions had been annihilated. Varus and his staff committed suicide. It was to be remembered by the Romans as the 'Varian disaster'.Tiberius thereafter still could march his legions through Germany almost unhindered, in fact he did so. But not to subdue it and conquer it. For this, one now understood, was beyond Roman power.Tiberius was recalled from his task of restoring Roman authority in Germany. Instead command was left in the hands of Germanicus, who was to be highly popular with the legions, in contrast to the almost despised Tiberius.Had Germanicus had any serious political ambitions he would certainly have become a formidable opponent to any future emperor. Yet, Germanicus was loyal and a devoted soldier.
Alas, Augustus went out with advice to his successors that the empire should be kept within its existing boundaries. This was an astonishing turn of events. The imperialist had recanted. Rome could not expand indefinitely. He had in office learned of the problems facing an empire of this scale and appreciated the difficulties in holding it together.Any further expansion in the eyes of the elderly Augustus would take the empire beyond being practically governable.Also, the Mediterranean part of Europe, Africa and Asia, which Rome now ruled had been developed prior to Roman occupation. There was roads, town, cities. What prize was there to win, defeating the barbarian hordes of the north. Augustus ultimate conclusion from the Varian Disaster was that only civilized territories were worth the blood of Roman legionaries.His advice would have demanded a change in attitude by all Rome - to defend, not to conquer. Rome however, the she-wolf with her mighty legions, was not yet ready for such advice.